1 00:00:02,211 --> 00:00:03,586 One of the largest volcanic eruptions 2 00:00:03,587 --> 00:00:07,549 in Earth’s history leads to a stunning discovery. 3 00:00:08,258 --> 00:00:11,385 This is Mount Toba, the largest volcanic eruption 4 00:00:11,386 --> 00:00:15,056 anywhere on Earth in the last 25 million years. 5 00:00:15,057 --> 00:00:19,435 600 cubic miles of material are ejected, 6 00:00:19,436 --> 00:00:21,270 burying huge swathes of Asia. 7 00:00:21,271 --> 00:00:23,856 And many creatures would have struggled to adapt, 8 00:00:23,857 --> 00:00:25,858 including our ancestors. 9 00:00:25,859 --> 00:00:27,944 Wildfires raging across mountains 10 00:00:27,945 --> 00:00:30,238 in the American West reveal a settlement 11 00:00:30,239 --> 00:00:32,031 hundreds of years old. 12 00:00:32,032 --> 00:00:33,950 The highest peaks are almost 14,000 feet 13 00:00:33,951 --> 00:00:36,118 above sea level, and some of these fires 14 00:00:36,119 --> 00:00:38,955 reached up to around 11,000 feet. 15 00:00:38,956 --> 00:00:41,290 Interestingly, each platform 16 00:00:41,291 --> 00:00:43,709 is also ringed by rocks. 17 00:00:43,710 --> 00:00:45,253 What is this place? 18 00:00:45,254 --> 00:00:47,380 Was a 7th century earthquake responsible 19 00:00:47,381 --> 00:00:50,341 for the destruction of an ancient civilization? 20 00:00:50,342 --> 00:00:52,802 There are a number of Urartian palace fortresses 21 00:00:52,803 --> 00:00:53,886 we’re aware of, 22 00:00:53,887 --> 00:00:56,013 and this new site seems to share the same 23 00:00:56,014 --> 00:00:57,974 architectural fingerprint. 24 00:00:57,975 --> 00:00:59,976 It looks like a Urartian fortress. 25 00:00:59,977 --> 00:01:01,352 And if it is a fortress, 26 00:01:01,353 --> 00:01:06,066 this immediately raises the question, could this be Ayanis? 27 00:01:07,484 --> 00:01:08,651 All over the world, 28 00:01:08,652 --> 00:01:11,821 incredible discoveries are being revealed 29 00:01:11,822 --> 00:01:14,323 by devastating events. 30 00:01:14,324 --> 00:01:16,659 Floods, earthquakes, 31 00:01:16,660 --> 00:01:19,328 droughts, hurricanes, 32 00:01:19,329 --> 00:01:21,289 volcanic eruptions. 33 00:01:21,290 --> 00:01:26,002 Trails of destruction expose extraordinary history. 34 00:01:26,003 --> 00:01:29,672 This is Discovered by Disaster. 35 00:01:38,390 --> 00:01:43,269 74,000 years ago on what’s now the island of Sumatra, 36 00:01:43,270 --> 00:01:46,147 a great mountain that had for half a million years 37 00:01:46,148 --> 00:01:48,983 resisted the mounting pressure of magma 38 00:01:48,984 --> 00:01:51,527 pressing up from deep below... 39 00:01:51,528 --> 00:01:53,447 explodes. 40 00:01:55,490 --> 00:01:58,284 This is Mount Toba, believed to be the largest 41 00:01:58,285 --> 00:02:00,369 volcanic eruption anywhere on Earth 42 00:02:00,370 --> 00:02:03,622 in the last 25 million years. 43 00:02:03,623 --> 00:02:07,835 600 cubic miles of material are ejected, 44 00:02:07,836 --> 00:02:10,671 burying huge swaths of Asia. 45 00:02:10,672 --> 00:02:13,174 Superheated ash shoots high into the atmosphere 46 00:02:13,175 --> 00:02:15,593 and is carried around the globe. 47 00:02:15,594 --> 00:02:18,929 Some of it falls in Africa. 48 00:02:18,930 --> 00:02:22,016 In the early 1990s, scientists theorized 49 00:02:22,017 --> 00:02:24,518 that Mount Toba's volcanic ash and gases 50 00:02:24,519 --> 00:02:28,064 would have enveloped the Earth, blocking the sun's heat 51 00:02:28,065 --> 00:02:30,191 and causing global temperatures to drop 52 00:02:30,192 --> 00:02:32,693 up to nine degrees Fahrenheit. 53 00:02:32,694 --> 00:02:37,491 The resulting volcanic winter may have lasted 1,000 years. 54 00:02:37,783 --> 00:02:40,493 This is the Toba catastrophe theory. 55 00:02:40,494 --> 00:02:44,121 It hypothesizes that some dry areas on Earth would have become 56 00:02:44,122 --> 00:02:48,084 even more dry during that sudden disruption to the climate, 57 00:02:48,085 --> 00:02:50,711 and many creatures would have struggled to adapt, 58 00:02:50,712 --> 00:02:53,340 including our ancestors. 59 00:02:53,715 --> 00:02:56,175 As a result, there may have been only about 60 00:02:56,176 --> 00:02:59,053 1,000 breeding pairs of humans left. 61 00:02:59,054 --> 00:03:03,683 We were almost completely wiped out in the Middle Stone Age. 62 00:03:03,684 --> 00:03:05,476 Obviously, we bounced back. 63 00:03:05,477 --> 00:03:06,977 But if this theory is correct, 64 00:03:06,978 --> 00:03:11,399 human beings came perilously close to extinction. 65 00:03:11,400 --> 00:03:12,858 So you would think there would be 66 00:03:12,859 --> 00:03:14,652 definitive evidence of this event. 67 00:03:14,653 --> 00:03:16,320 I mean, it was our near extinction. 68 00:03:16,321 --> 00:03:19,532 So it should show up in the geological record. 69 00:03:19,533 --> 00:03:21,784 And a lot of anthropologists have been very keen 70 00:03:21,785 --> 00:03:24,037 to find that evidence. 71 00:03:28,542 --> 00:03:31,752 South of the city Metema in northern Ethiopia, 72 00:03:31,753 --> 00:03:33,712 along the Shinfa riverbed, 73 00:03:33,713 --> 00:03:35,464 archaeologists may have found 74 00:03:35,465 --> 00:03:38,134 exactly what they’ve been searching for. 75 00:03:38,135 --> 00:03:41,637 What's initially found is tiny stone flakes 76 00:03:41,638 --> 00:03:43,514 mixed into the earth. 77 00:03:43,515 --> 00:03:46,100 We call this microdebitage: 78 00:03:46,101 --> 00:03:48,978 the tiny flakes a tool-maker chips off 79 00:03:48,979 --> 00:03:53,482 while shaping a stone blade or tip. 80 00:03:53,483 --> 00:03:58,070 This is a telltale sign of stone tool production, 81 00:03:58,071 --> 00:04:03,033 and therefore, of Stone Age humans. 82 00:04:03,034 --> 00:04:04,910 So they follow up with more careful digging, 83 00:04:04,911 --> 00:04:08,289 and sure enough, they find completed stone tools 84 00:04:08,290 --> 00:04:10,499 with symmetrical bladed tips. 85 00:04:10,500 --> 00:04:14,211 So these could be speartips or darts or arrowheads. 86 00:04:14,212 --> 00:04:17,882 And there’s also a wide variety of animal bone fragments. 87 00:04:17,883 --> 00:04:20,050 Thousands of specimens. 88 00:04:20,051 --> 00:04:22,678 Nearly 16,000 pieces of chipped stones 89 00:04:22,679 --> 00:04:24,138 are uncovered. 90 00:04:24,139 --> 00:04:28,184 But something about the animal bones strikes anthropologists. 91 00:04:28,185 --> 00:04:30,561 There is an impressively broad variety 92 00:04:30,562 --> 00:04:32,021 of faunal remains here. 93 00:04:32,022 --> 00:04:35,316 Among them, the femur of a small to medium gazelle, 94 00:04:35,317 --> 00:04:40,196 showing marks made by stone tools; evidence of butchering. 95 00:04:40,197 --> 00:04:41,947 There's a molar from a warthog, 96 00:04:41,948 --> 00:04:44,158 the humerus of a savanna monkey. 97 00:04:44,159 --> 00:04:47,161 And bones from guinea fowl, snakes, frogs, 98 00:04:47,162 --> 00:04:49,371 antelope, cattle, and goats. 99 00:04:49,372 --> 00:04:52,500 And quite a variety of fish bones, as well. 100 00:04:52,501 --> 00:04:54,335 Many of the bones show tool marks, 101 00:04:54,336 --> 00:04:56,712 strong evidence that they were either hunted or butchered 102 00:04:56,713 --> 00:04:58,214 by humans, or both. 103 00:04:58,215 --> 00:05:00,966 And they show partial calcination. 104 00:05:00,967 --> 00:05:04,220 That’s evidence of being cooked over a fire. 105 00:05:04,221 --> 00:05:09,141 So it’s very clear this was a valuable site. 106 00:05:09,142 --> 00:05:12,436 Archaeologists name the site Shinfa-Metema 1, 107 00:05:12,437 --> 00:05:18,317 or SM1, and establish a major archaeological excavation. 108 00:05:18,318 --> 00:05:20,569 One of the things you look at in a site 109 00:05:20,570 --> 00:05:22,571 is depositional layers. 110 00:05:22,572 --> 00:05:25,241 Sedimentary layers are laid down over time, 111 00:05:25,242 --> 00:05:29,328 so you know that fossils or artifacts found lower down 112 00:05:29,329 --> 00:05:34,083 are older, and higher up, they’re newer. 113 00:05:34,084 --> 00:05:35,668 In the case of SM1, 114 00:05:35,669 --> 00:05:38,629 due to periodic overflows of the Shinfa River, 115 00:05:38,630 --> 00:05:42,592 you've got a lot of nice, distinct depositional layers. 116 00:05:44,594 --> 00:05:46,262 One of these layers in particular 117 00:05:46,263 --> 00:05:50,349 alerts anthropologists to their golden opportunity. 118 00:05:50,350 --> 00:05:52,268 There are tiny, glass-like particles, 119 00:05:52,269 --> 00:05:54,270 invisible to the naked eye. 120 00:05:54,271 --> 00:05:56,105 These are microscopic tephra-- 121 00:05:56,106 --> 00:05:58,190 material ejected by a volcano-- 122 00:05:58,191 --> 00:05:59,358 and their chemical signature 123 00:05:59,359 --> 00:06:02,736 matches exactly that of the Toba eruption. 124 00:06:02,737 --> 00:06:04,780 This is like a gift. 125 00:06:04,781 --> 00:06:06,907 The archaeologists are excited to have found 126 00:06:06,908 --> 00:06:10,703 the tephra layer at SM1, but it's the deposit layers 127 00:06:10,704 --> 00:06:14,957 above and below it that they’re really interested in. 128 00:06:14,958 --> 00:06:16,041 According to what is known 129 00:06:16,042 --> 00:06:18,335 as the Toba catastrophe theory, 130 00:06:18,336 --> 00:06:21,130 there should be a huge difference between the layers 131 00:06:21,131 --> 00:06:23,632 below the tephra layer that were laid down 132 00:06:23,633 --> 00:06:25,467 before the volcano went off 133 00:06:25,468 --> 00:06:30,723 and the layers above it which were deposited after. 134 00:06:30,724 --> 00:06:33,934 Before Toba's eruption, the layers should show 135 00:06:33,935 --> 00:06:38,898 life as normal, in terms of the intensity of human activity; 136 00:06:38,899 --> 00:06:41,775 so, tool-making, hunting and cooking. 137 00:06:41,776 --> 00:06:45,613 But after the eruption, in the higher depositional layers, 138 00:06:45,614 --> 00:06:49,241 we should see that activity drop off a cliff, 139 00:06:49,242 --> 00:06:52,036 because that was when the climate tanked, 140 00:06:52,037 --> 00:06:55,497 and humans almost died out. 141 00:06:55,498 --> 00:06:58,167 This is a chance to glimpse our own mortality, 142 00:06:58,168 --> 00:07:00,336 to see our near extinction as a species 143 00:07:00,337 --> 00:07:03,047 recorded in the fossil record. 144 00:07:03,048 --> 00:07:04,173 To find out more, 145 00:07:04,174 --> 00:07:07,176 researchers study the layers closely. 146 00:07:07,177 --> 00:07:08,969 There was a reduction in overall flow 147 00:07:08,970 --> 00:07:11,889 to the Shinfa River, due to less rainfall. 148 00:07:11,890 --> 00:07:13,307 There was a longer dry season 149 00:07:13,308 --> 00:07:16,185 and a shorter wet season each year. 150 00:07:16,186 --> 00:07:18,354 This is exactly what we'd expect to see, 151 00:07:18,355 --> 00:07:20,731 based on the Toba catastrophe theory: 152 00:07:20,732 --> 00:07:26,236 the climate at SM1 became more arid and less survivable. 153 00:07:26,237 --> 00:07:28,656 Even today, this part of Africa 154 00:07:28,657 --> 00:07:32,117 is a very tough, unforgiving environment. 155 00:07:32,118 --> 00:07:34,745 So back then, after the Toba eruption, 156 00:07:34,746 --> 00:07:37,373 it must have been much worse. 157 00:07:37,374 --> 00:07:41,710 If humans had been struggling to survive all over the continent, 158 00:07:41,711 --> 00:07:46,340 it definitely would have been very hard here. 159 00:07:46,341 --> 00:07:47,883 But when archaeologists compare 160 00:07:47,884 --> 00:07:50,636 the volume of the evidence of human activity 161 00:07:50,637 --> 00:07:55,432 above and below the tephra layer, they get a surprise. 162 00:07:55,433 --> 00:07:57,393 There is no discernible decrease 163 00:07:57,394 --> 00:07:59,728 in overall human activity at all; 164 00:07:59,729 --> 00:08:03,399 not in stone tool-making and not in the overall amount of food 165 00:08:03,400 --> 00:08:05,943 hunted, collected or cooked. 166 00:08:05,944 --> 00:08:09,238 You'd expect to see the intensity of human activity drop 167 00:08:09,239 --> 00:08:13,575 radically above the tephra layer, but it does not. 168 00:08:13,576 --> 00:08:15,619 So, how come? 169 00:08:15,620 --> 00:08:17,746 The amount of human activity appears to be 170 00:08:17,747 --> 00:08:20,749 roughly the same, from layer to layer. 171 00:08:20,750 --> 00:08:23,544 But when archaeologists catalogue and compare 172 00:08:23,545 --> 00:08:26,922 all the bone fragments found within each layer, 173 00:08:26,923 --> 00:08:30,259 they come to a realization. 174 00:08:30,260 --> 00:08:32,511 There's about the same overall amount of food 175 00:08:32,512 --> 00:08:35,097 being hunted and consumed at SM1. 176 00:08:35,098 --> 00:08:36,557 Their consumption of fish 177 00:08:36,558 --> 00:08:40,853 goes from just 14% of their total diet up to 52%. 178 00:08:40,854 --> 00:08:43,439 It almost quadruples. 179 00:08:43,440 --> 00:08:47,693 If the river keeps shrinking with every year's dry season, 180 00:08:47,694 --> 00:08:51,530 how do they end up getting more fish in their diet? 181 00:08:51,531 --> 00:08:53,574 Archaeologists look to what happens 182 00:08:53,575 --> 00:08:57,619 to the modern-day Shinfa River during the annual dry seasons, 183 00:08:57,620 --> 00:09:00,247 and that shifts their perspective. 184 00:09:00,248 --> 00:09:01,540 During the dry season, 185 00:09:01,541 --> 00:09:04,960 the Shinfa often stops flowing altogether. 186 00:09:04,961 --> 00:09:08,380 And at what were the deepest sections of the river, 187 00:09:08,381 --> 00:09:12,301 you get these left-over, isolated water holes. 188 00:09:12,302 --> 00:09:14,011 The fish there are captive, 189 00:09:14,012 --> 00:09:19,308 until the next rainy season makes the Shinfa a river again. 190 00:09:19,309 --> 00:09:21,310 Immediately after the Toba eruption, 191 00:09:21,311 --> 00:09:24,313 when the climate became even more arid for a period of time, 192 00:09:24,314 --> 00:09:27,566 those water holes would have been smaller. 193 00:09:27,567 --> 00:09:30,569 Maybe that made the fish easier to catch. 194 00:09:30,570 --> 00:09:33,072 The other thing is that during the dry season, 195 00:09:33,073 --> 00:09:35,157 animals still have to drink. 196 00:09:35,158 --> 00:09:37,159 The water holes would have been perfect spots 197 00:09:37,160 --> 00:09:41,288 for SM1's inhabitants to build hunting blinds and lie in wait 198 00:09:41,289 --> 00:09:43,165 with their sharp arrows and darts 199 00:09:43,166 --> 00:09:46,126 for their prey to come to them. 200 00:09:46,127 --> 00:09:48,253 So with smaller and fewer water holes, 201 00:09:48,254 --> 00:09:51,381 humans may have adapted their foraging behaviors. 202 00:09:51,382 --> 00:09:54,718 They turned a negative-- the increasingly arid climate-- 203 00:09:54,719 --> 00:09:57,596 into a positive, by hunting by the water holes, 204 00:09:57,597 --> 00:10:01,558 and crucially, by making fish a much larger part of their diet. 205 00:10:01,559 --> 00:10:05,480 And these humans, thankfully for us, thrived. 206 00:10:07,857 --> 00:10:09,483 The researchers believe these revelations 207 00:10:09,484 --> 00:10:13,362 may have even more far-reaching implications. 208 00:10:13,363 --> 00:10:16,281 SM1 is in the proximity of two 209 00:10:16,282 --> 00:10:18,534 of the possible routes by which it's thought 210 00:10:18,535 --> 00:10:22,412 humans may have first migrated out of Africa, 211 00:10:22,413 --> 00:10:27,251 at around the same time SM1 was in active use. 212 00:10:27,252 --> 00:10:29,128 Many anthropologists have long thought 213 00:10:29,129 --> 00:10:31,713 that the only way humans could have first ventured 214 00:10:31,714 --> 00:10:33,382 off the continent would have been 215 00:10:33,383 --> 00:10:37,719 via temporary green corridors. 216 00:10:37,720 --> 00:10:40,347 The thinking has been that in regions like this, 217 00:10:40,348 --> 00:10:43,308 most years were so arid and unforgiving 218 00:10:43,309 --> 00:10:45,602 that those areas were basically impassable. 219 00:10:45,603 --> 00:10:47,521 They were just too deadly. 220 00:10:47,522 --> 00:10:49,273 It was only during periods 221 00:10:49,274 --> 00:10:52,568 of greater than average rainfall that these dry areas 222 00:10:52,569 --> 00:10:56,947 would temporarily transform and spring up with lush vegetation. 223 00:10:56,948 --> 00:10:58,574 And while that existed, 224 00:10:58,575 --> 00:11:01,952 they were avenues that could sustain human life. 225 00:11:01,953 --> 00:11:04,830 Those green corridors may have been an opportunity 226 00:11:04,831 --> 00:11:07,666 for early humans to increase their range 227 00:11:07,667 --> 00:11:11,753 and ultimately spread beyond the African continent. 228 00:11:11,754 --> 00:11:13,046 But this seems contradictory. 229 00:11:13,047 --> 00:11:16,216 I mean, if this is a time when those green corridors 230 00:11:16,217 --> 00:11:19,887 are less and less available, how come that's when humans 231 00:11:19,888 --> 00:11:22,764 are able to use them to get out of Africa? 232 00:11:22,765 --> 00:11:25,184 It's possible that SM1 humans became 233 00:11:25,185 --> 00:11:28,645 more and more successful at emptying these water holes 234 00:11:28,646 --> 00:11:31,190 of fish during the dry seasons. 235 00:11:31,191 --> 00:11:32,900 Having done so in one water hole, 236 00:11:32,901 --> 00:11:34,943 they could have made the relatively short journey 237 00:11:34,944 --> 00:11:38,071 along the dried-up riverbed to the next water hole 238 00:11:38,072 --> 00:11:40,032 to get fish from there. 239 00:11:40,033 --> 00:11:43,785 This would have led to a natural, unintended migration 240 00:11:43,786 --> 00:11:47,956 during the dry seasons, from water hole to water hole, 241 00:11:47,957 --> 00:11:52,211 eventually to expand their range beyond Africa 242 00:11:52,212 --> 00:11:57,883 by blue highways, which were these strings of waterholes. 243 00:11:57,884 --> 00:12:00,677 This new hypothesis challenges the conventional, 244 00:12:00,678 --> 00:12:02,429 previously accepted narratives 245 00:12:02,430 --> 00:12:05,140 about Middle Stone Age human dispersal. 246 00:12:05,141 --> 00:12:08,393 As we make more discoveries, we can test this hypothesis 247 00:12:08,394 --> 00:12:09,645 and get closer to finding out 248 00:12:09,646 --> 00:12:14,316 how our ancestors spread throughout our world. 249 00:12:14,317 --> 00:12:16,652 Some volcanologists hypothesize, 250 00:12:16,653 --> 00:12:19,905 due to the chemical makeup of the Mount Toba eruption, 251 00:12:19,906 --> 00:12:23,575 it may not have had as strong or long-lasting an effect 252 00:12:23,576 --> 00:12:27,455 on the planet’s climate as originally surmised. 253 00:12:28,998 --> 00:12:30,332 The Toba catastrophe may just have been 254 00:12:30,333 --> 00:12:32,459 more mild than we thought. 255 00:12:32,460 --> 00:12:34,670 I mean, if you can call an eruption on that scale mild. 256 00:12:34,671 --> 00:12:36,922 It was the biggest volcano in 25 million years. 257 00:12:36,923 --> 00:12:40,634 But the data suggests that the Earth's climate 258 00:12:40,635 --> 00:12:43,845 may have bounced back within a decade. 259 00:12:43,846 --> 00:12:46,807 Were a super-eruption like Toba to occur today, 260 00:12:46,808 --> 00:12:49,268 the effects on the climate, the food chain, 261 00:12:49,269 --> 00:12:51,520 and the course of human civilization 262 00:12:51,521 --> 00:12:55,065 would at best be difficult to predict. 263 00:13:03,449 --> 00:13:05,575 In the summer of 2006, 264 00:13:05,576 --> 00:13:09,288 wildfires raged across the American West. 265 00:13:09,289 --> 00:13:13,458 In western Wyoming, tens of thousands of acres burnt up 266 00:13:13,459 --> 00:13:17,045 as the state struggled to battle the flames. 267 00:13:17,046 --> 00:13:20,757 The fires reached the mountains of the Wind River Range 268 00:13:20,758 --> 00:13:25,721 and its alpine forests, lakes and valleys. 269 00:13:25,722 --> 00:13:27,764 The Wind River Range stretches some 100 miles 270 00:13:27,765 --> 00:13:29,725 across northwestern Wyoming. 271 00:13:29,726 --> 00:13:32,853 The highest peaks are almost 14,000 feet above sea level, 272 00:13:32,854 --> 00:13:37,150 and some of these fires reached up to around 11,000 feet. 273 00:13:39,110 --> 00:13:41,153 Shortly after the fires had stopped, 274 00:13:41,154 --> 00:13:44,239 an archaeologist working on the sides of a steep slope 275 00:13:44,240 --> 00:13:48,618 that had recently burned saw a piece of curiously shaped rock 276 00:13:48,619 --> 00:13:53,707 lying on the ground among massive granite boulders. 277 00:13:53,708 --> 00:13:56,001 It has a rough, granular texture, 278 00:13:56,002 --> 00:13:58,920 and if you look closely, you can see the rock 279 00:13:58,921 --> 00:14:02,799 consists of tiny individual grains of sand, 280 00:14:02,800 --> 00:14:06,094 which is what identifies it as sandstone. 281 00:14:06,095 --> 00:14:10,098 Strangely, one side is smooth and heavily polished, 282 00:14:10,099 --> 00:14:14,603 as though it had been used as a grinding tool. 283 00:14:14,604 --> 00:14:16,772 New technologies and expanded interested 284 00:14:16,773 --> 00:14:18,815 in the field have led to improvements 285 00:14:18,816 --> 00:14:22,986 in high-altitude archaeology. 286 00:14:22,987 --> 00:14:25,614 This site is about 11,000 feet above sea level, 287 00:14:25,615 --> 00:14:28,700 which is roughly where the tree line comes to an end. 288 00:14:28,701 --> 00:14:31,411 The area is interspersed with stands of white bark pine 289 00:14:31,412 --> 00:14:32,746 and alpine tundra, 290 00:14:32,747 --> 00:14:35,999 but doesn’t seem like much else can be found here. 291 00:14:36,000 --> 00:14:39,961 So, what is this grindstone doing up here? 292 00:14:39,962 --> 00:14:43,006 With their curiosity piqued, archaeologists continue 293 00:14:43,007 --> 00:14:46,426 to inspect the area and come upon a flat platform 294 00:14:46,427 --> 00:14:48,762 cut into the slope of the mountain. 295 00:14:48,763 --> 00:14:51,556 On the ground are many little pieces of stone 296 00:14:51,557 --> 00:14:54,142 with smooth, angular faces. 297 00:14:54,143 --> 00:14:55,977 Although it's obviously stone, 298 00:14:55,978 --> 00:15:00,107 its texture is really, really smooth to the touch. 299 00:15:00,108 --> 00:15:03,819 And the angular faces on the rocks show that it's been struck 300 00:15:03,820 --> 00:15:07,739 multiple times against other rocks to shape it. 301 00:15:07,740 --> 00:15:10,033 This is what we call chert. 302 00:15:10,034 --> 00:15:13,370 It's a stone used by ancient cultures around the world 303 00:15:13,371 --> 00:15:16,332 to make their weapons sharp. 304 00:15:18,042 --> 00:15:19,167 In the same location, 305 00:15:19,168 --> 00:15:21,753 archaeologists find a projectile point 306 00:15:21,754 --> 00:15:24,756 as well as what looks like small stone walls 307 00:15:24,757 --> 00:15:27,926 that have been erected on the platform. 308 00:15:27,927 --> 00:15:30,929 This is all clear evidence of human activity. 309 00:15:30,930 --> 00:15:35,142 So people have been living here, which is pretty unexpected. 310 00:15:35,143 --> 00:15:36,643 At 11,000 feet, 311 00:15:36,644 --> 00:15:40,856 conditions aren’t exactly comfortable for humans. 312 00:15:40,857 --> 00:15:44,151 Generally for every 1,000 feet you climb, 313 00:15:44,152 --> 00:15:48,572 there is a reduction of about 3% of the oxygen available 314 00:15:48,573 --> 00:15:50,198 for you to breathe. 315 00:15:50,199 --> 00:15:54,161 This means that by the time you hit 11,000 feet, 316 00:15:54,162 --> 00:15:57,372 you're only breathing 70% of the oxygen 317 00:15:57,373 --> 00:15:59,833 available to you at sea level. 318 00:15:59,834 --> 00:16:01,835 So you can imagine how difficult 319 00:16:01,836 --> 00:16:08,300 it would be hiking through here, let alone living here. 320 00:16:08,301 --> 00:16:10,093 But the sheer amount of chert flakes present 321 00:16:10,094 --> 00:16:11,887 at the site indicates that there were likely 322 00:16:11,888 --> 00:16:13,889 a lot of people living here. 323 00:16:13,890 --> 00:16:15,807 And judging by the wear on grinding stone, 324 00:16:15,808 --> 00:16:18,560 they must have been living here for quite some time. 325 00:16:18,561 --> 00:16:20,229 So who were they? 326 00:16:22,982 --> 00:16:25,859 Archaeologists expand their search across the area. 327 00:16:25,860 --> 00:16:28,195 Because the fires have burnt the place bare, 328 00:16:28,196 --> 00:16:31,656 features that were previously obscured by brush and trees 329 00:16:31,657 --> 00:16:35,911 are now clearly visible to the naked eye. 330 00:16:35,912 --> 00:16:40,957 Over 60 stone platforms can now be seen. 331 00:16:40,958 --> 00:16:45,378 They have all been cut into the mountainside. 332 00:16:45,379 --> 00:16:47,130 This is pretty impressive, 333 00:16:47,131 --> 00:16:50,842 because at an angle of 23 degrees, 334 00:16:50,843 --> 00:16:53,303 this slope is pretty steep. 335 00:16:53,304 --> 00:16:57,766 So it couldn’t have been easy to do so. 336 00:16:57,767 --> 00:17:04,397 Interestingly, each platform is also ringed by rocks. 337 00:17:04,398 --> 00:17:07,943 What is this place? 338 00:17:07,944 --> 00:17:09,778 This part of Wyoming is in the traditional lands 339 00:17:09,779 --> 00:17:11,404 of the Shoshone people. 340 00:17:11,405 --> 00:17:13,865 And prior to colonization, there was also a band that lived 341 00:17:13,866 --> 00:17:17,118 in these mountains called the Mountain Shoshone. 342 00:17:17,119 --> 00:17:20,288 Unlike those Shoshone groups who adopted the horse 343 00:17:20,289 --> 00:17:22,040 and moved out into the prairie, 344 00:17:22,041 --> 00:17:24,709 the Mountain Shoshone remained in the mountains 345 00:17:24,710 --> 00:17:28,505 and used the dog as their beast of burden. 346 00:17:28,506 --> 00:17:30,799 We knew that they called this place home, 347 00:17:30,800 --> 00:17:33,510 but we didn't know where exactly they held 348 00:17:33,511 --> 00:17:36,012 their annual or semi-annual camps. 349 00:17:36,013 --> 00:17:39,266 Could this have been one of them? 350 00:17:39,267 --> 00:17:43,103 Scattered across the platforms are tens of thousands 351 00:17:43,104 --> 00:17:47,440 of chert flakes, butchering tools, projectile points, 352 00:17:47,441 --> 00:17:51,903 ceramic vessels, and bowls. 353 00:17:51,904 --> 00:17:53,488 Given the volume of artifacts and the fact 354 00:17:53,489 --> 00:17:56,866 that this is traditional Mountain Shoshone territory, 355 00:17:56,867 --> 00:17:58,326 I think it's safe to assume that these are the remains 356 00:17:58,327 --> 00:18:01,956 of an alpine village, likely a seasonal one. 357 00:18:04,959 --> 00:18:06,251 It would have been quite a sight. 358 00:18:06,252 --> 00:18:09,838 The settlement's lowest point is 300 feet below its highest, 359 00:18:09,839 --> 00:18:14,301 which is equivalent to a 30-story building. 360 00:18:14,302 --> 00:18:16,845 The platforms were probably lodge pads 361 00:18:16,846 --> 00:18:21,224 where teepees or wikiups would have been erected. 362 00:18:21,225 --> 00:18:24,603 Further excavations revealed that a total of 52 363 00:18:24,604 --> 00:18:25,854 of the platforms 364 00:18:25,855 --> 00:18:29,024 also contain a grinding stone. 365 00:18:29,025 --> 00:18:30,984 What these grindstones tell us is a little bit about 366 00:18:30,985 --> 00:18:36,031 why they chose this location to settle. 367 00:18:36,032 --> 00:18:38,283 The archaeologists believe that they were used 368 00:18:38,284 --> 00:18:41,786 for processing bitterroot and biscuitroot, 369 00:18:41,787 --> 00:18:44,080 which were highly valued for their medicinal 370 00:18:44,081 --> 00:18:47,751 and nutritional properties. 371 00:18:47,752 --> 00:18:49,377 They were an important component 372 00:18:49,378 --> 00:18:52,255 of the Mountain Shoshones' diet. 373 00:18:52,256 --> 00:18:54,007 To further cement their theory 374 00:18:54,008 --> 00:18:55,717 that the high alpine was targeted 375 00:18:55,718 --> 00:18:57,427 for the harvesting of roots, 376 00:18:57,428 --> 00:19:00,138 the archaeologists use satellite, terrain, 377 00:19:00,139 --> 00:19:03,516 and environmental information to create a digital model 378 00:19:03,517 --> 00:19:07,563 to predict where the best sites to set up camp would be. 379 00:19:09,982 --> 00:19:11,733 The model predicted things correctly, 380 00:19:11,734 --> 00:19:14,111 and 14 more were discovered. 381 00:19:14,278 --> 00:19:16,946 Of course, we need a computer simulation to figure this out, 382 00:19:16,947 --> 00:19:18,907 whereas the Mountain Shoshone would have simply known 383 00:19:18,908 --> 00:19:22,243 intuitively by observing the sites. 384 00:19:22,244 --> 00:19:25,246 Archaeologists also notice that some lodges 385 00:19:25,247 --> 00:19:29,376 had higher concentrations of specific tools than others. 386 00:19:29,377 --> 00:19:32,587 In one lodge, for example, there were tools used 387 00:19:32,588 --> 00:19:34,589 for making projectile points, 388 00:19:34,590 --> 00:19:38,510 whereas in another, there were only artifacts associated 389 00:19:38,511 --> 00:19:42,931 with butchering of meat and the cleaning of hides. 390 00:19:42,932 --> 00:19:44,349 So, there appears to have been 391 00:19:44,350 --> 00:19:47,435 some form of division of labor here, 392 00:19:47,436 --> 00:19:50,855 or it could be that they designated sites 393 00:19:50,856 --> 00:19:54,401 for specific kinds of work. 394 00:19:54,402 --> 00:19:56,194 Observing the area in full, 395 00:19:56,195 --> 00:19:58,405 the researchers surmised that the environment 396 00:19:58,406 --> 00:20:01,032 would have provided more than enough resources 397 00:20:01,033 --> 00:20:04,452 for the Mountain Shoshone to thrive. 398 00:20:04,453 --> 00:20:06,162 There's a mountain spring at the northwest corner 399 00:20:06,163 --> 00:20:07,997 of the site, so in the peak of summer, 400 00:20:07,998 --> 00:20:10,250 when water in the lowlands is scarce, 401 00:20:10,251 --> 00:20:13,461 they had everything they needed up here. 402 00:20:13,462 --> 00:20:16,005 Also, animals would move farther up into the mountains 403 00:20:16,006 --> 00:20:17,340 in search of water. 404 00:20:17,341 --> 00:20:21,010 So there were plenty of bighorn sheep and deer and elk 405 00:20:21,011 --> 00:20:23,263 for the Shoshone to hunt. 406 00:20:23,264 --> 00:20:26,558 But when were they living here? 407 00:20:26,559 --> 00:20:28,476 From the lodges, archaeologists take 408 00:20:28,477 --> 00:20:31,187 several samples of charcoal found in the hearths 409 00:20:31,188 --> 00:20:34,149 and radiocarbon date them in the lab. 410 00:20:34,150 --> 00:20:38,486 The oldest sample is almost 3,000 years old. 411 00:20:38,487 --> 00:20:41,906 While the most recent sample is from around 1850. 412 00:20:41,907 --> 00:20:43,283 This latter date makes sense 413 00:20:43,284 --> 00:20:45,368 considering the history of the region. 414 00:20:45,369 --> 00:20:47,495 It was around this time when more and more 415 00:20:47,496 --> 00:20:51,499 European and American settlers began to populate the territory, 416 00:20:51,500 --> 00:20:53,418 while the United States government continued 417 00:20:53,419 --> 00:20:56,004 to violently expel the Indigenous groups 418 00:20:56,005 --> 00:20:58,214 already living on it. 419 00:20:58,215 --> 00:20:59,674 To think that this place saw occupation 420 00:20:59,675 --> 00:21:03,595 for four millennia, if not more, is really incredible. 421 00:21:03,596 --> 00:21:06,347 It shows us that the Shoshone had and continue to have 422 00:21:06,348 --> 00:21:08,433 a special relationship with the land, 423 00:21:08,434 --> 00:21:10,018 allowing them to hunt and harvest food 424 00:21:10,019 --> 00:21:13,146 in this relatively fragile environment. 425 00:21:13,147 --> 00:21:15,356 The village was the first and largest 426 00:21:15,357 --> 00:21:18,318 of at least 19 settlements that have been located 427 00:21:18,319 --> 00:21:20,695 across the Wind River range. 428 00:21:20,696 --> 00:21:24,616 These sites continue to provide new insight into the culture 429 00:21:24,617 --> 00:21:26,201 and lives of the people 430 00:21:26,202 --> 00:21:29,246 Indigenous to the American West. 431 00:21:39,006 --> 00:21:40,882 Eastern Anatolia has historically been 432 00:21:40,883 --> 00:21:45,553 seismically active, even dating back to the Kingdom of Urartu 433 00:21:45,554 --> 00:21:47,680 in the 7th century. 434 00:21:47,681 --> 00:21:50,141 The Urartu civilization dominated this region 435 00:21:50,142 --> 00:21:52,393 for about 250 years. 436 00:21:52,394 --> 00:21:53,895 At its peak, the kingdom spanned 437 00:21:53,896 --> 00:21:55,230 part of present-day Armenia, 438 00:21:55,231 --> 00:21:57,774 western Iran, and eastern Turkey. 439 00:21:57,775 --> 00:22:01,110 King Rusa II had erected five fortresses in the region, 440 00:22:01,111 --> 00:22:03,571 the last of which was known as Ayanis. 441 00:22:03,572 --> 00:22:05,240 This was where the king had planned to live out 442 00:22:05,241 --> 00:22:09,077 the rest of a long and secure reign. 443 00:22:09,078 --> 00:22:13,039 Then, in 1989, archaeologists begin digging 444 00:22:13,040 --> 00:22:17,710 on a site 22 miles north of the city of Van. 445 00:22:17,711 --> 00:22:18,795 The site is on a hill 446 00:22:18,796 --> 00:22:21,256 above the eastern shores of Lake Van. 447 00:22:21,257 --> 00:22:24,384 Remnants of large stone and mud brick walls are visible. 448 00:22:24,385 --> 00:22:26,594 What kind of structure was this? 449 00:22:26,595 --> 00:22:29,305 As archaeologists uncover more walls, 450 00:22:29,306 --> 00:22:32,225 things start to look familiar to them. 451 00:22:32,226 --> 00:22:34,394 There are a number of Urartian palace fortresses 452 00:22:34,395 --> 00:22:37,772 we're aware of: Karmir-Blur, Bastam, 453 00:22:37,773 --> 00:22:39,816 Kef Kalesi, Toprakkale. 454 00:22:39,817 --> 00:22:41,484 And this new site seems to share 455 00:22:41,485 --> 00:22:44,153 the same architectural fingerprint. 456 00:22:44,154 --> 00:22:47,740 A base of large, precisely cut stone blocks 457 00:22:47,741 --> 00:22:51,077 with walls of mud brick blocks built on top of them. 458 00:22:51,078 --> 00:22:53,955 It looks like a Urartian fortress. 459 00:22:53,956 --> 00:22:55,081 And if it is a fortress, 460 00:22:55,082 --> 00:22:57,375 then given its location, overlooking the lake 461 00:22:57,376 --> 00:23:00,295 with a view of Suphan Mountain on the other side of it, 462 00:23:00,296 --> 00:23:02,130 this immediately raises the question, 463 00:23:02,131 --> 00:23:06,467 could this be Ayanis or whatever’s left of it? 464 00:23:06,468 --> 00:23:08,887 Adjacent to the fortress' main walls 465 00:23:08,888 --> 00:23:12,807 are the remains of smaller structures. 466 00:23:12,808 --> 00:23:14,642 There are all kinds of earthenware jars, 467 00:23:14,643 --> 00:23:17,770 grinding stones and casks for fermenting beer, 468 00:23:17,771 --> 00:23:19,272 even baskets and remains of barley 469 00:23:19,273 --> 00:23:21,190 and white millet have survived. 470 00:23:21,191 --> 00:23:24,652 There are also sewing needles, iron axes, shovels, and knives, 471 00:23:24,653 --> 00:23:28,281 and even metal tweezers for personal grooming. 472 00:23:28,282 --> 00:23:29,657 So these buildings appear to have been 473 00:23:29,658 --> 00:23:31,326 storage and living spaces. 474 00:23:31,327 --> 00:23:33,161 The domestic area, where the fortress' 475 00:23:33,162 --> 00:23:36,539 non-administrative support staff would have lived. 476 00:23:36,540 --> 00:23:39,000 The fortress seems to have had all the amenities 477 00:23:39,001 --> 00:23:41,169 for a luxurious existence, 478 00:23:41,170 --> 00:23:45,173 but it’s situated in an unlikely location. 479 00:23:45,174 --> 00:23:46,758 This part of the country has long, cold, 480 00:23:46,759 --> 00:23:49,302 snowy winters, and the growing season is short, 481 00:23:49,303 --> 00:23:52,388 so it’s not an ideal place to support a civilization. 482 00:23:52,389 --> 00:23:54,766 Also, Lake Van is a rock basin. 483 00:23:54,767 --> 00:23:57,352 It doesn't have any rivers or streams as an outlet, 484 00:23:57,353 --> 00:23:59,938 so the water is brackish. 485 00:23:59,939 --> 00:24:02,023 That makes it too salty for irrigation. 486 00:24:02,024 --> 00:24:03,358 It’ll kill your crops. 487 00:24:03,359 --> 00:24:05,526 So, is it just a bad location 488 00:24:05,527 --> 00:24:08,738 that contributed to Urartu’s demise? 489 00:24:08,739 --> 00:24:10,782 The terrain and climate would have required 490 00:24:10,783 --> 00:24:13,159 a complex water management system 491 00:24:13,160 --> 00:24:15,870 for any large population to survive. 492 00:24:15,871 --> 00:24:19,374 So what the Urartians did was construct reservoirs 493 00:24:19,375 --> 00:24:22,335 to collect freshwater from the winter melt. 494 00:24:22,336 --> 00:24:25,838 And there's also evidence of dams and irrigation canals, 495 00:24:25,839 --> 00:24:29,467 which they drew water from through terracotta pipes. 496 00:24:29,468 --> 00:24:30,885 Elsewhere in the kingdom, 497 00:24:30,886 --> 00:24:34,347 in order to get water from the Hrazdan River to their fields, 498 00:24:34,348 --> 00:24:37,266 they cut a 900-foot tunnel through the rock. 499 00:24:37,267 --> 00:24:40,103 They not only irrigated fields of essential crops, 500 00:24:40,104 --> 00:24:42,313 but vineyards and orchards. 501 00:24:42,314 --> 00:24:44,524 The Urartians were brilliant engineers. 502 00:24:44,525 --> 00:24:46,943 That's how they could survive and thrive 503 00:24:46,944 --> 00:24:50,905 in such an inhospitable environment. 504 00:24:50,906 --> 00:24:54,200 As the excavation of the fortress site progresses, 505 00:24:54,201 --> 00:24:55,743 the outline of a large, 506 00:24:55,744 --> 00:24:59,456 distinctive, square building emerges. 507 00:25:01,333 --> 00:25:02,458 The building's shape is square, 508 00:25:02,459 --> 00:25:05,504 and is characteristic of a Urartian temple. 509 00:25:07,172 --> 00:25:08,881 Inside the temple ruins is a podium 510 00:25:08,882 --> 00:25:10,466 of mud brick and alabaster. 511 00:25:10,467 --> 00:25:11,884 And this thing is ornate. 512 00:25:11,885 --> 00:25:15,013 You can see carvings of winged lions within a mesh of trees 513 00:25:15,014 --> 00:25:19,767 which look like they might represent the tree of life. 514 00:25:19,768 --> 00:25:22,770 In the main temple space and adjoining storage chambers, 515 00:25:22,771 --> 00:25:26,983 there are hundreds of objects, vessels for holy wine, 516 00:25:26,984 --> 00:25:28,526 a great number of bronze shields, 517 00:25:28,527 --> 00:25:32,405 lances, helmets, and swords. 518 00:25:32,406 --> 00:25:35,616 Archaeologists also found cuneiform inscriptions 519 00:25:35,617 --> 00:25:39,746 on tablets and pottery at the site. 520 00:25:39,747 --> 00:25:41,289 We think it was during this period 521 00:25:41,290 --> 00:25:44,250 that cuneiform first spread to this part of the world, 522 00:25:44,251 --> 00:25:45,960 which was an ancient writing system that involved 523 00:25:45,961 --> 00:25:50,298 making wedge-shaped marks in a soft surface like clay. 524 00:25:50,299 --> 00:25:51,382 The Urartians were also renowned 525 00:25:51,383 --> 00:25:53,217 for their skills in metallurgy. 526 00:25:53,218 --> 00:25:55,136 Their iron tools helped them push the boundaries 527 00:25:55,137 --> 00:25:57,430 of stone masonry and the chiseling of rocks, 528 00:25:57,431 --> 00:25:59,140 and their metalwork was exceptional. 529 00:25:59,141 --> 00:26:00,224 Belt buckles have been found 530 00:26:00,225 --> 00:26:02,769 engraved with depictions of everyday life. 531 00:26:02,770 --> 00:26:06,314 Art was apparently an important part of the culture. 532 00:26:06,315 --> 00:26:08,399 Structural timber remains of the fortress 533 00:26:08,400 --> 00:26:11,360 are located, and the dendrochronological analysis 534 00:26:11,361 --> 00:26:13,488 of the growth rings produces a date range 535 00:26:13,489 --> 00:26:19,494 between 677 and 673 BCE. 536 00:26:19,495 --> 00:26:22,038 If that's the earliest date the timbers were felled, 537 00:26:22,039 --> 00:26:28,836 this fortress must have been built around 673 or 672 BCE. 538 00:26:28,837 --> 00:26:31,714 And given that the inscribed artifacts found in the temple 539 00:26:31,715 --> 00:26:35,426 were offerings from King Rusa II to Haldi, 540 00:26:35,427 --> 00:26:38,513 I think we can safely conclude that this fortress 541 00:26:38,514 --> 00:26:43,476 must be the remains of the legendary Ayanis. 542 00:26:43,477 --> 00:26:45,019 What's a bit puzzling is that the condition 543 00:26:45,020 --> 00:26:46,437 and locations of all the finds 544 00:26:46,438 --> 00:26:48,815 indicate Ayanis was abandoned in a hurry, 545 00:26:48,816 --> 00:26:52,235 but apparently with little to no loss of life. 546 00:26:52,236 --> 00:26:54,113 So, what could have caused this? 547 00:26:56,156 --> 00:26:57,406 As the excavation expands, 548 00:26:57,407 --> 00:26:59,408 a large number of crafted weapons, 549 00:26:59,409 --> 00:27:02,995 helmets, and shields are found. 550 00:27:02,996 --> 00:27:05,665 This suggests a preoccupation with war. 551 00:27:05,666 --> 00:27:08,376 Inscribed dedications on some of the items 552 00:27:08,377 --> 00:27:11,879 asked Haldi for protection against attack. 553 00:27:11,880 --> 00:27:16,926 Were these dedications driven by the fear of a known threat? 554 00:27:16,927 --> 00:27:19,345 The five fortresses built by Rusa II 555 00:27:19,346 --> 00:27:21,430 were for protection against attack 556 00:27:21,431 --> 00:27:25,643 from Urartu's neighboring Cimmerian and Scythian kingdoms. 557 00:27:25,644 --> 00:27:27,687 But if Ayanis had fallen to attack, 558 00:27:27,688 --> 00:27:30,898 you would expect to find bones with evidence of injury. 559 00:27:30,899 --> 00:27:33,776 You'd also expect to see a lot of armor or swords 560 00:27:33,777 --> 00:27:35,319 with similar damage. 561 00:27:35,320 --> 00:27:37,572 But we don’t find that here. 562 00:27:37,573 --> 00:27:40,199 Further examination of the stone blocks 563 00:27:40,200 --> 00:27:42,076 that make up the rampart walls 564 00:27:42,077 --> 00:27:46,581 may just provide some clarity on what happened to Ayanis. 565 00:27:46,582 --> 00:27:48,583 There are deep cracks and fissures in the stone, 566 00:27:48,584 --> 00:27:50,835 and at the base of the southern ramparts, 567 00:27:50,836 --> 00:27:54,630 there’s clear separation of some of the basalt blocks. 568 00:27:54,631 --> 00:27:57,842 This looks like earthquake damage. 569 00:27:57,843 --> 00:28:00,052 But If Ayanis was destroyed by a quake, 570 00:28:00,053 --> 00:28:01,971 that shouldn't necessarily have led to the failure 571 00:28:01,972 --> 00:28:03,431 of the entire kingdom, 572 00:28:03,432 --> 00:28:06,559 especially if the residents of the palace survived. 573 00:28:06,560 --> 00:28:08,644 Three of the temple's pillars show signs 574 00:28:08,645 --> 00:28:11,731 of having been displaced, north or northwest 575 00:28:11,732 --> 00:28:14,775 from their original positions. 576 00:28:14,776 --> 00:28:16,444 That kind of displacement is typical 577 00:28:16,445 --> 00:28:17,820 of earthquake damage. 578 00:28:17,821 --> 00:28:21,490 There's also evidence that one of the temple's mud brick walls, 579 00:28:21,491 --> 00:28:24,160 was repaired sometime in antiquity. 580 00:28:24,161 --> 00:28:28,289 So did Ayanis suffer but survive 581 00:28:28,290 --> 00:28:31,959 a series of earthquakes during its existence? 582 00:28:31,960 --> 00:28:33,628 If you examine the design of Ayanis 583 00:28:33,629 --> 00:28:35,504 and the methods of construction, 584 00:28:35,505 --> 00:28:37,882 it appears that Urartian engineers understood 585 00:28:37,883 --> 00:28:40,968 the seismological risks they faced quite well, 586 00:28:40,969 --> 00:28:43,846 and that they had built protections against damage 587 00:28:43,847 --> 00:28:45,640 into their structures. 588 00:28:45,641 --> 00:28:49,310 These were early attempts at quake proofing. 589 00:28:49,311 --> 00:28:50,394 During an earthquake, 590 00:28:50,395 --> 00:28:52,271 the soft ground will vibrate more, 591 00:28:52,272 --> 00:28:54,857 especially as its magnitude increases. 592 00:28:54,858 --> 00:28:57,193 In order to minimize a quake's destructive effects, 593 00:28:57,194 --> 00:29:00,863 it’s necessary to build on firm, resistant ground. 594 00:29:00,864 --> 00:29:03,658 The Urartian architects clearly understood this 595 00:29:03,659 --> 00:29:06,494 and built their fortresses, including Ayanis, 596 00:29:06,495 --> 00:29:09,330 on natural hills, embedding their foundations 597 00:29:09,331 --> 00:29:11,123 in the bedrock. 598 00:29:11,124 --> 00:29:12,917 If you look at the base of the fortress' walls, 599 00:29:12,918 --> 00:29:14,794 you can tell its builders used iron tools 600 00:29:14,795 --> 00:29:17,088 to create keystones in the bedrock. 601 00:29:17,089 --> 00:29:19,298 This locks in the blocks in place to prevent them 602 00:29:19,299 --> 00:29:21,092 from sliding during a quake. 603 00:29:21,093 --> 00:29:24,136 They even put basalt rock powder between the blocks 604 00:29:24,137 --> 00:29:27,056 to increase friction and to better lock them together. 605 00:29:27,057 --> 00:29:28,182 So these aren’t afterthoughts. 606 00:29:28,183 --> 00:29:31,102 It shows they were building earthquake-proof buildings 607 00:29:31,103 --> 00:29:32,979 from the ground up. 608 00:29:32,980 --> 00:29:34,855 The archaeologists' hypotheses 609 00:29:34,856 --> 00:29:38,192 about Urartian know-how are put to the test 610 00:29:38,193 --> 00:29:40,945 in the worst possible way. 611 00:29:40,946 --> 00:29:43,406 On October 23, 2011, 612 00:29:43,407 --> 00:29:46,575 even as excavation of the site continues, 613 00:29:46,576 --> 00:29:52,081 a magnitude 7.2 earthquake strikes the Lake Van region. 614 00:29:52,082 --> 00:29:54,166 This quake was felt as far away as Jordan 615 00:29:54,167 --> 00:29:55,876 and even parts of Russia, 616 00:29:55,877 --> 00:29:58,879 and it was a movement that's called an oblique thrust 617 00:29:58,880 --> 00:30:03,259 where the earth comes up and to the side at the same time. 618 00:30:03,260 --> 00:30:05,845 Well over 500 people were killed. 619 00:30:05,846 --> 00:30:09,682 Thousands of structures in several towns were destroyed. 620 00:30:09,683 --> 00:30:13,644 Ayanis' pillars drifted again during the 2011 event 621 00:30:13,645 --> 00:30:15,688 and in the same direction. 622 00:30:15,689 --> 00:30:18,441 The mud brick wall that was repaired in antiquity 623 00:30:18,442 --> 00:30:21,694 was damaged again by the 2011 quake. 624 00:30:21,695 --> 00:30:22,987 Most significantly, 625 00:30:22,988 --> 00:30:25,948 the direction of violent movement produced by both quakes 626 00:30:25,949 --> 00:30:27,324 matched the direction of movement 627 00:30:27,325 --> 00:30:31,038 that the ancient Urartians had built to protect against. 628 00:30:34,833 --> 00:30:36,917 A study of the fortress' lower levels 629 00:30:36,918 --> 00:30:40,087 reveals that a row of walls collapsed like dominoes 630 00:30:40,088 --> 00:30:42,757 as a result of an ancient earthquake. 631 00:30:42,758 --> 00:30:45,468 Surprisingly, only two human skeletons 632 00:30:45,469 --> 00:30:48,345 were found at the site. 633 00:30:48,346 --> 00:30:49,805 We can only guess that tremors 634 00:30:49,806 --> 00:30:53,225 preceded the main earthquake, alerting the inhabitants, 635 00:30:53,226 --> 00:30:54,769 which gave them time to escape. 636 00:30:54,770 --> 00:30:56,145 And once they had escaped, 637 00:30:56,146 --> 00:30:59,023 there was nothing left for them to come back to. 638 00:30:59,024 --> 00:31:01,984 Ayanis Fortress was never again occupied. 639 00:31:01,985 --> 00:31:05,613 Rusa II's reign ended soon after the quake, 640 00:31:05,614 --> 00:31:09,950 between 645 and 655 BCE. 641 00:31:09,951 --> 00:31:12,661 And the kingdom may well have begun its decline 642 00:31:12,662 --> 00:31:14,288 after his rule. 643 00:31:14,289 --> 00:31:16,916 Seeing what that quake did to the fortress, 644 00:31:16,917 --> 00:31:18,793 it's easy to imagine that it could have done 645 00:31:18,794 --> 00:31:20,711 horrendous damage to crucial infrastructure 646 00:31:20,712 --> 00:31:22,880 throughout the kingdom. 647 00:31:22,881 --> 00:31:25,674 That would have made Urartu vulnerable to attack 648 00:31:25,675 --> 00:31:27,134 from competing nations. 649 00:31:27,135 --> 00:31:29,887 And maybe that’s what finally finished them off: an attack. 650 00:31:29,888 --> 00:31:31,847 Maybe it was the Scythians. 651 00:31:31,848 --> 00:31:34,183 Maybe it was the Cimmerians. 652 00:31:34,184 --> 00:31:37,478 Even after more than three decades of excavations, 653 00:31:37,479 --> 00:31:41,482 a kingdom's last magnificent fortress is still teaching us 654 00:31:41,483 --> 00:31:44,693 about its lost great civilization. 655 00:31:44,694 --> 00:31:47,029 Ayanis was destroyed by an earthquake 656 00:31:47,030 --> 00:31:49,156 but managed to protect and preserve 657 00:31:49,157 --> 00:31:53,078 Urartian achievements and culture, after all. 658 00:32:01,878 --> 00:32:04,922 In the winter of 2021, an enormous storm 659 00:32:04,923 --> 00:32:07,508 lashed Greece’s southern Peloponnese region 660 00:32:07,509 --> 00:32:10,511 near the ancient site of Olympia. 661 00:32:10,512 --> 00:32:14,181 The rains added to a long list of floods and severe weather 662 00:32:14,182 --> 00:32:16,684 that impacted the country. 663 00:32:16,685 --> 00:32:19,603 For an entire year, landslides were wreaking havoc 664 00:32:19,604 --> 00:32:21,773 across the nation. 665 00:32:23,275 --> 00:32:25,025 Layers of topsoil were washed away, 666 00:32:25,026 --> 00:32:27,194 putting the ancient Temple of Zeus in danger. 667 00:32:27,195 --> 00:32:29,363 Luckily, it withstood the intense weather. 668 00:32:29,364 --> 00:32:30,573 But what the rains did do 669 00:32:30,574 --> 00:32:32,700 was some of the work for archaeologists. 670 00:32:32,701 --> 00:32:35,744 So you can call it a mixed blessing. 671 00:32:35,745 --> 00:32:38,581 Following the storm, an archaeologist surveying 672 00:32:38,582 --> 00:32:41,208 the damage in and around the Temple of Zeus 673 00:32:41,209 --> 00:32:44,003 spotted a blue, horn-shaped piece of metal 674 00:32:44,004 --> 00:32:46,839 sticking up out of the soil. 675 00:32:46,840 --> 00:32:48,716 This was one of the most sacred sites 676 00:32:48,717 --> 00:32:50,009 for the ancient Greeks. 677 00:32:50,010 --> 00:32:53,220 So anything unearthed from in and around the temple 678 00:32:53,221 --> 00:32:56,807 would be of immediate archaeological interest. 679 00:32:56,808 --> 00:32:58,058 Once you dust the soil off, 680 00:32:58,059 --> 00:33:00,686 you can see that it's a small sculpture of a bull 681 00:33:00,687 --> 00:33:02,104 with two horns that's only 682 00:33:02,105 --> 00:33:04,690 about two inches long. 683 00:33:04,691 --> 00:33:06,400 But why would a bull be here 684 00:33:06,401 --> 00:33:08,903 at the Temple of Zeus? 685 00:33:08,904 --> 00:33:10,029 To the ancient Greeks, 686 00:33:10,030 --> 00:33:13,032 Zeus was the father of both gods and men. 687 00:33:13,033 --> 00:33:14,950 From his home on Mount Olympus, he ruled the heavens 688 00:33:14,951 --> 00:33:17,661 and sent thunder, lightning, rain, and winds 689 00:33:17,662 --> 00:33:19,413 out into the world. 690 00:33:19,414 --> 00:33:20,706 And where this bull was buried 691 00:33:20,707 --> 00:33:23,417 is where the Greeks would come to worship him. 692 00:33:23,418 --> 00:33:25,669 The Temple of Zeus is the largest temple 693 00:33:25,670 --> 00:33:28,047 in the Peloponnese region. 694 00:33:28,048 --> 00:33:29,715 Although it has since collapsed, 695 00:33:29,716 --> 00:33:33,594 its ruins show us that over 1,500 years ago 696 00:33:33,595 --> 00:33:35,554 it was magnificent. 697 00:33:35,555 --> 00:33:38,265 Its columns measured over 34 feet tall 698 00:33:38,266 --> 00:33:42,436 and they were over seven feet wide. 699 00:33:42,437 --> 00:33:43,771 At the far end of the temple 700 00:33:43,772 --> 00:33:47,942 was a 40-foot ivory and gold statue of the god himself. 701 00:33:47,943 --> 00:33:51,028 It showed him on a throne, holding a sceptre in one hand, 702 00:33:51,029 --> 00:33:53,739 and Nike, the goddess of victory in the other. 703 00:33:53,740 --> 00:33:56,533 So the bull could have been an offering to Zeus, 704 00:33:56,534 --> 00:33:59,620 but for what exactly? 705 00:33:59,621 --> 00:34:01,413 The temple is located at Olympia, 706 00:34:01,414 --> 00:34:02,498 which as its name suggests 707 00:34:02,499 --> 00:34:05,209 is where the Olympics of ancient Greece were held. 708 00:34:05,210 --> 00:34:07,795 This was a five-day event that saw athletes competing 709 00:34:07,796 --> 00:34:11,340 against each other in a variety of different competitions. 710 00:34:11,341 --> 00:34:13,759 The ancient Greek Olympics were a far cry 711 00:34:13,760 --> 00:34:15,636 from the games we know today. 712 00:34:15,637 --> 00:34:17,721 Back then, only men were allowed to compete, 713 00:34:17,722 --> 00:34:19,848 and they had to do so in the nude. 714 00:34:19,849 --> 00:34:22,017 If they made, say, a false start, 715 00:34:22,018 --> 00:34:25,354 they could expect to face corporal punishment. 716 00:34:25,355 --> 00:34:27,731 Men boxed and wrestled covered in oil, 717 00:34:27,732 --> 00:34:30,234 and the fights were no holds barred. 718 00:34:30,235 --> 00:34:34,154 Basically, anything other than biting and gouging was allowed. 719 00:34:34,155 --> 00:34:37,825 Sometimes people died as a result of the brutality. 720 00:34:37,826 --> 00:34:41,996 But what does a bull have to do with the Olympic Games? 721 00:34:41,997 --> 00:34:44,331 The Olympic Games of ancient Greece were held 722 00:34:44,332 --> 00:34:48,919 in the honor of the most powerful god of all, Zeus. 723 00:34:48,920 --> 00:34:51,880 Victorious athletes would be crowned with olive wreaths 724 00:34:51,881 --> 00:34:55,926 in front of the temple dedicated to him. 725 00:34:55,927 --> 00:34:57,428 It's important to understand that the Olympics 726 00:34:57,429 --> 00:35:01,056 were steeped in religion, tradition and sanctity. 727 00:35:01,057 --> 00:35:03,726 The entire five days were dedicated to Zeus, 728 00:35:03,727 --> 00:35:05,227 and so as a result, many offerings, 729 00:35:05,228 --> 00:35:08,814 both in blood and bronze may have been offered. 730 00:35:08,815 --> 00:35:10,065 They were pagans after all, 731 00:35:10,066 --> 00:35:13,277 and these festivities tended to be pretty intense. 732 00:35:13,278 --> 00:35:15,529 The archaeologists discover that the soil 733 00:35:15,530 --> 00:35:20,367 where the bronze bull was found shows evidence of fire. 734 00:35:20,368 --> 00:35:22,703 During the ritual sacrifice of an animal, 735 00:35:22,704 --> 00:35:25,289 the Greeks would burn the inedible part. 736 00:35:25,290 --> 00:35:28,208 So it would make sense that someone, maybe an Olympian, 737 00:35:28,209 --> 00:35:32,671 would bury the bull here, during or after a sacrificial ceremony 738 00:35:32,672 --> 00:35:35,215 held to gain the favor of Zeus. 739 00:35:35,216 --> 00:35:39,928 After all, bulls were symbols of both strength and fertility. 740 00:35:39,929 --> 00:35:41,555 Not far from the temple grounds, 741 00:35:41,556 --> 00:35:45,100 archaeologists have discovered thousands of animal figurines, 742 00:35:45,101 --> 00:35:49,188 including bulls, buried underneath the surface. 743 00:35:49,189 --> 00:35:50,939 So this shows you how dedicated 744 00:35:50,940 --> 00:35:53,901 the people at this time were to their gods. 745 00:35:53,902 --> 00:35:56,904 But this temple was in use for 1,000 years or more. 746 00:35:56,905 --> 00:35:59,281 So were they all offering these bronze bulls 747 00:35:59,282 --> 00:36:04,453 for the same reason: to bring them good luck in the Olympics? 748 00:36:04,454 --> 00:36:06,121 Maybe not all of them. 749 00:36:06,122 --> 00:36:08,415 Because the bull was a symbol of fertility, 750 00:36:08,416 --> 00:36:11,377 it could be that your average Greek landowner 751 00:36:11,378 --> 00:36:16,715 laid these bulls down, asking Zeus for a plentiful harvest. 752 00:36:16,716 --> 00:36:19,009 The thing is, many of these sacrificial bronze bulls 753 00:36:19,010 --> 00:36:21,095 have a peculiar shape. 754 00:36:21,096 --> 00:36:23,180 Their pose is slightly tilted forwards, 755 00:36:23,181 --> 00:36:25,182 and their horns are turned inwards, 756 00:36:25,183 --> 00:36:27,434 and the angle formed by the skull's axis in the horns 757 00:36:27,435 --> 00:36:29,978 is less than 60 degrees. 758 00:36:29,979 --> 00:36:32,481 The horns are also much bigger than those of your normal bull. 759 00:36:32,482 --> 00:36:35,776 So maybe they aren’t typical bulls after all. 760 00:36:35,777 --> 00:36:38,237 Just to the south of the Peloponnese peninsula 761 00:36:38,238 --> 00:36:40,906 lies the island of Kythira. 762 00:36:40,907 --> 00:36:43,784 Recently, archaeologists analyzed the skeleton 763 00:36:43,785 --> 00:36:45,703 of a bovine that roamed the Earth 764 00:36:45,704 --> 00:36:47,996 tens of thousands of years ago. 765 00:36:47,997 --> 00:36:49,331 If you look at its skeleton, 766 00:36:49,332 --> 00:36:51,709 you can see that it has the same horns, 767 00:36:51,710 --> 00:36:54,002 and the same forward leaning posture 768 00:36:54,003 --> 00:36:57,548 that can be seen on this bronze statue of a bull. 769 00:36:57,549 --> 00:37:00,551 This statue is by no means your typical bull, 770 00:37:00,552 --> 00:37:03,971 or at least not one we’re very familiar with today. 771 00:37:03,972 --> 00:37:07,057 It's actually a representation of the Bos primigenius, 772 00:37:07,058 --> 00:37:10,144 which is the Latin term for the auroch. 773 00:37:10,145 --> 00:37:14,231 Why would they have made a statue of the cow’s ancestor? 774 00:37:14,232 --> 00:37:16,859 Today's cows are descended from the auroch, 775 00:37:16,860 --> 00:37:20,237 which went extinct in the early 1600s. 776 00:37:20,238 --> 00:37:22,197 During the time of the ancient Greeks, 777 00:37:22,198 --> 00:37:25,242 the auroch, standing over six feet at the shoulder, 778 00:37:25,243 --> 00:37:30,831 and weighing over 2,000 pounds, was a prime target for hunters. 779 00:37:30,832 --> 00:37:32,624 The land around the Temple of Zeus 780 00:37:32,625 --> 00:37:37,212 is hilly and forested, but is also characterized by marshes, 781 00:37:37,213 --> 00:37:39,715 which is exactly the kind of environment 782 00:37:39,716 --> 00:37:42,509 the aurochs liked hanging out in. 783 00:37:42,510 --> 00:37:46,221 So could these offerings be not for luck in competition 784 00:37:46,222 --> 00:37:50,350 or farming, but rather to succeed during the hunt? 785 00:37:50,351 --> 00:37:52,186 It’s definitely possible. 786 00:37:52,187 --> 00:37:54,938 It must have been a popular animal to hunt. 787 00:37:54,939 --> 00:37:56,356 By the 5th century BCE, 788 00:37:56,357 --> 00:38:00,569 the auroch had gone extinct from all of ancient Greece. 789 00:38:00,570 --> 00:38:02,946 So these bronze offerings must be from 790 00:38:02,947 --> 00:38:05,115 before the time of Herodotus. 791 00:38:05,116 --> 00:38:08,160 We also have palace reliefs from the Assyrian Empire, 792 00:38:08,161 --> 00:38:11,205 which came to an end around the 7th century BCE, 793 00:38:11,206 --> 00:38:15,375 depicting nobles hunting the auroch. 794 00:38:15,376 --> 00:38:17,878 Our understanding is that the hunting of the auroch 795 00:38:17,879 --> 00:38:20,214 was an activity reserved for the aristocracy 796 00:38:20,215 --> 00:38:22,090 throughout the ancient world. 797 00:38:22,091 --> 00:38:24,218 But they must have hunted them with gusto, 798 00:38:24,219 --> 00:38:28,430 because their numbers plummeted as a result. 799 00:38:28,431 --> 00:38:30,557 The bronze bulls found here at Olympia 800 00:38:30,558 --> 00:38:33,727 may be from some desperate aristocratic hunters, 801 00:38:33,728 --> 00:38:38,524 hoping that their offering would see them succeed in the hunt. 802 00:38:38,525 --> 00:38:42,110 Whether offered by hunters, athletes or farmers 803 00:38:42,111 --> 00:38:43,612 desperate for a good yield, 804 00:38:43,613 --> 00:38:46,240 it's fitting that this little bull was found 805 00:38:46,241 --> 00:38:49,577 as a result of a storm that was brought on by Zeus, 806 00:38:49,702 --> 00:38:51,663 the god of weather.